Man’s Nefarious Impact on Watershed Management. The Case of Lake Victoria
Filippo Verre - April 9, 2022
* L’immagine di copertina di questo report è stata presa dal sito Kenya Vacanze, consultabile al seguente link: https://www.kenyavacanze.org/mare/isole-del-lago-vittoria/
With its almost 69,000 km² of surface area, Lake Victoria is the largest water basin on the African continent and the second largest freshwater lake in the world, second only to Lake Superior, located between the United States and Canada. Divided across the territory of three countries, Tanzania (51%), Uganda (43%) and Kenya (6%), Lake Victoria is also the largest tropical lake in the world, home to numerous animal and plant species, many of which are endemic. Although it is a very large lake, it should be noted that it is not deep at all. The average depth, in fact, stands at 42/43 meters with maximum peaks that do not exceed 84 meters. This is not much, especially if you compare these numbers with those of other large lakes. To get an idea, keep in mind that Lake Baikal, a large Russian body of water located in southern Siberia and with an extension equal to about half of Victoria, has an average depth of about 700 meters with peaks that reach over 1,600.
Fig. 1: Geo-localizzazione del Lago Vittoria con relativo bacino idrografico
Fig. 2: Pesce persico del Nilo di grandi dimensioni
Victoria plays a very important role for about thirty million people who live along its very long coastline, about 4,828 kilometers in total. The importance of the lake can be quantified in various areas, especially from a socio-economic, fishing and water supply point of view. Fishing is the main economic activity for those who live near this large body of water. Over 2 million people from the three countries that share its surface work in this sector on a daily basis. The high fish abundance of the lake has guaranteed a significant productivity for the local fishing industry for decades. In this regard, it should be noted that fish from Lake Victoria are part of the diet of almost 22 million people every year, thus contributing to reducing food insecurity in the region. The Nile perch (Lates Niloticus) is the main fish that is regularly caught in Victoria; it is caught so much that in addition to making a decisive contribution to sales in local markets, the Lates Niloticus is exported in large quantities to foreign markets, including the Middle East, Europe and North America. The presence of this fish in the waters of Lake Victoria is due to the White Nile, the main emissary of the lake. The perch, going up the river current, find a natural outlet in the vast lagoons of Victoria, contributing to making it extremely rich in fish. This fish can reach remarkable dimensions and, not infrequently, reaches 2 meters in length and 200 kg in weight. This therefore guarantees a precious food resource for many African families.
Fig. 3: Mappa batimetrica del Lago Vittoria
In addition to the thriving fishing industry, it is worth considering the important role that Lake Victoria plays from an energy perspective. The lake waters are in fact widely exploited to produce hydroelectric power in Owen Falls, Uganda. Built between 1951 and 1954, the Owen Falls power plants can generate 260 megawatts of electricity, produced entirely by exploiting the kinetic energy caused by flowing water. This is a “clean” source that allows Ugandan industry to take advantage of an important energy resource to use in production processes. In some cases, the hydroelectric power produced in Owen Falls is imported from Kenya, promoting economic and energy cooperation between two important countries in central and southern Africa.
Fig. 4: La diga di Owen Falls
Pollution, diplomatic tensions and accidents on Lake Victoria. The impact of man
Environmental sphere
Man's actions often have negative effects on the environment. Negligence, excessive exploitation, failure to comply with ecological standards and other factors attributable to human actions can have very negative impacts on entire ecosystems. Unfortunately, Lake Victoria is a clear example of how humans can put at risk a resource that is extremely indispensable, from many points of view, for several million individuals. What has been happening in the waters of the lake for some time is very worrying, especially given the multiple crises caused by man both within Lake Victoria and with regard to the entire lake basin. The latter, it should be remembered, is very large and relevant from a socioeconomic point of view: it covers almost 240,000 km² and extends well beyond the coasts, which are already very significant in themselves.
The first negative factor attributable to direct human action concerns the environmental sphere. Nowadays, Lake Victoria is in fact one of the most polluted lakes on the African continent. Its large size prevents us from speaking of a real “environmental crisis”. To get an idea of the size of this lake, let’s take the Italian surface area as a reference: our country has an extension of approximately 301,000 km². Well, Lake Victoria (69,000 km²) is just under a quarter of the size of Italy. As you can imagine, it is a truly significant mass of water; this size involves a substantial “dilution” of the substances that are carelessly released into its waters, effectively preventing us from reaching a truly critical situation from an environmental point of view.
On the other hand, we cannot help but underline a worrying trend that has characterized the lake for some years now. According to the Daily Nation, Kenya’s main newspaper, Lake Victoria is literally a “poison pit”[1]. The investigation by the Kenyan newspaper was published in February 2020 and raised a lot of controversy at the continental level. In 16 well-documented pages supported by scientific evidence, the Daily Nation expressed an extremely critical assessment of the current environmental situation of the largest tropical lake in the world. Expressions such as Lake of poison or Rotting from the deep were recurrent in the Kenyan dossier, an unmistakable sign of an extremely negative judgment attributed to large portions of the lake. The reasons for this clear stance by the Kenyan newspaper are various.
First of all, one of the lake's major tributaries - the Kisat River - is the main responsible for the pollution of Victoria by river. The Kisat, a medium-large watercourse that flows into the lake, collects essentially all the human waste and industrial waste produced by the city of Kisumu, the third in Kenya after Nairobi and Mombasa. In addition, the river also pours into the lake all the sewage that passes through the purification plant of the Water and Sewerage Company (Kiwasco) which, among other things, subsequently pumps the same water nearby and purifies it to sell it to hundreds of thousands of people living in the lake basin[2]. In addition, it should not be overlooked that the waste from the sewer system of Kodiaga, a maximum security prison that holds about 3,000 inmates, ends up in the lake. The sewage system, built in the 1950s during the colonial era, has essentially stopped working since 2008. Since then, no intervention has been planned to prevent the sewage from ending up in the lake through the river. As if that were not enough, the same happens with the sewage produced by the University of Maseno, attended by thousands of students, where there is no sewage treatment system. As noted by the Kenyan dossier, the prison and the university contribute significantly to the pollution of the lake, which is in fact directly exposed to the dumping of hundreds of kg of organic waste into its waters every year[3].
As reported by the website Nigrizia, the researchers hired by the Daily Nation – Professor James Mbaria, 26 years of experience in pharmacology and toxicology, and Dr. Nduhiu Gitahi, an expert in human waste management, food safety and water quality for domestic use – have found a decidedly critical situation[4]. According to the two scholars, the pollution that has been affecting the lake for several years now also reaches the deep waters in the center of Victoria. A detailed table reports the elements identified in numerous locations, both in the waters of Kenya and Uganda. In this regard, the specialists have identified several toxic elements, harmful not only for the lake vegetation.
Fig. 5: Giacinto d’acqua
Eichhornia crassipes is native to the Amazon River basin but has been introduced to many countries in tropical and temperate areas of the world as an ornamental plant, often becoming an invasive species. In Africa, specifically, the species was initially introduced for ornamental purposes in Egypt in the 19th century. The first report in the Nile dates back to 1958 and from there it quickly spread to neighboring areas, including Lake Victoria. Here the plant was reported for the first time in 1988. In the absence of natural competitors, it has become a serious ecological problem, since it contributes to reducing the space available for fish, even creating accessibility problems to the port of Kisumu.
Fig. 6: Geo-localizzazione del porto di Kisumu
The Water Hyacinth, although considered by many to be a plant with a pleasant appearance, is a species that significantly damages the ecosystem in which it is introduced. Given the absence of animals that feed on it - very present in the gigantic Amazon basin which therefore limits its diffusion - this plant can literally alter the environmental characteristics of entire river or lake basins. To get a clear idea of this, consider that, in favorable conditions, a single plant in 50 days can produce up to 3,000 more and cover an area of 600 m² in a year, with consequences that are not only environmental, but also economic and health-related. Its thick floating carpets prevent the penetration of light, hindering the growth of submerged plant species and reducing the amount of oxygen in the water, modifying the nutrient cycle and the speed of sedimentation with a serious impact on aquatic fauna and flora. Furthermore, the plant releases chemicals into the water that inhibit the growth of other organisms, causing a reduction in biodiversity [7].
Fig. 7: Caratteristica “pavimentazione” del Giacinto d’acqua
The proliferation of water hyacinth also has a strong impact on human activities: it prevents fishing, can hinder the navigation of smaller or less powerful vessels and interfere with urban and rural water supplies. Finally, its floating masses constitute an ideal habitat for the reproduction of mosquitoes and molluscs which, especially in tropical regions, are important vectors of pathogens and parasites potentially dangerous for humans. By virtue of its great danger both for the environment and for humans directly, European regulations – also implemented by Italy – prohibit the marketing, cultivation and even the possession of water hyacinth on the territory of the European Union.
Diplomatic tensions on Lake Victoria
The second negative factor is attributable to the diplomatic sphere. As mentioned, Lake Victoria is a large lake whose surface is divided into three different Central African countries. Like all transboundary water basins, it is also subject to diplomatic tensions between states that, against their will, are forced to share portions of rivers or lakes. Specifically, the most heated clashes have occurred between Kenya and Uganda for control of the tiny islet of Migingo. Just a quarter of a hectare in size, it has been at the center of a bitter dispute between the two nations for years over fishing issues. On this rocky spur, whose shape vaguely resembles that of a tin turtle, dozens of families of fishermen are crowded together in a tangle of shacks with a small port, a few bars and even a brothel.
As can be seen from Fig. 8, the island of Migingo is not particularly important from a territorial point of view. It is, in fact, a small shell of metal sheets placed on the placid silver waters of Lake Victoria that can be crossed on foot in less than a minute, around which a few dozen wooden boats gravitate. The latter are used en masse by the island’s inhabitants (about 300 people) to fish the aforementioned Nile perch, which is very abundant in the waters surrounding the small island. In this regard, it is important to underline that fishing was the main cause of the tensions that arose between Kenya and Uganda for the control of Migingo.
Fig. 8: Isolotto di Migingo sul Lago Vittoria
In recent decades, the fishing industry on the tiny “tin island” has seen a boom. Over time, this has attracted several families of fishermen who have decided to settle there and start profitable businesses. Along with the fishermen, however, several groups of lake pirates have also arrived, eager to plunder this little island that, in a short time, had developed a vibrant economy. Some time ago, Uganda deployed an armed contingent to guard the island (officially to protect the fishermen from pirates) and imposed taxes on fishing. Kenya’s response was not long in coming. The government of Nairobi has in turn claimed dominion over the island and the right to collect taxes. This situation, which has lasted for over a decade, has become paradoxical, since on an area little larger than a rock, real representations have been built by the two countries with a political-diplomatic function.
In 2009, Kenya and Uganda had tried to find a solution that was as peaceful as possible, creating a joint commission to determine their respective rights to this piece of land. Currently, however, after more than twelve years the parties have not yet reached a definitive resolution. In the meantime, on the co-managed island there have been skirmishes and clashes that, if poorly managed, could have precipitated a thorny conflict between two regional actors of the highest level. The last episode of some importance occurred in 2019, when the Ugandan security forces repelled an attempt by the Kenyan authorities to raise a flag on the island. John Obunge, head of the Migingo beach management unit, declared on that occasion that: "(the Ugandans) took down the flag and warned the Kenyan police deployed on the island not to repeat such attempts again" [8]. To avoid an escalation, the Kenyan security forces have refrained from perpetuating further actions of this type. For their part, Kenyans also complain about excessive interference by Uganda in the affairs of Migingo Island. According to James Orengo, the minority leader in the Senate in Nairobi: "Ugandan forces continue to carry out arbitrary arrests of Kenyan fishermen and police officers, yet the government remains silent". Orengo, a lawyer and well-known human rights activist, has also proposed that Kenya submit a complaint to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) to resolve this difficult situation once and for all [9].
Fig. 9: James Orengo, leader di minoranza del Senato keniota
Accidents and shipwrecks on Lake Victoria
The third and final negative factor analyzed in this report concerns the numerous and tragic accidents that often occur in the waters of the lake. The safety regulations regarding lake transport are rarely respected by shipowners; in order to make easy money, unfortunately, it often happens that ferries or boats capable of carrying a certain weight are overloaded with goods and people. In some cases, the weight transported exceeds several times that permitted by the ordinary capacity. In addition, it should be noted that the boats used are in most cases old, malfunctioning and worn out from years of use and neglect. These characteristics unfortunately constitute the normality of the movements that occur along the coasts of Victoria. Due to this difficult situation, accidents are not uncommon, often causing several victims and missing persons. In this regard, according to the organization Lake Rescue, every year there are at least 5,000 drowned people in daily accidents that do not even make it to the pages of the local news.
So, in addition to the daily cases of sinking, two events that have had international relevance are reported. The first happened recently; on 20 September 2018, a serious accident occurred during a trip between the islands of Ukerewe and Ukara involving the ferry MV Nyerere. According to the shipowners of the Tanzanian Electrical, Mechanical and Services Agency (TEMESA), the vessel was approved to transport 100 people and 25 tons of goods and had been in service since 2004. In reality, it is estimated that there were at least 400 passengers. Furthermore, according to testimonies of some survivors, the Nyerere was also carrying a truck with a heavy load of corn and cement, thus adding a lot of weight to an already overloaded ferry[10]. The excessive load caused the ferry to capsize during the trip, causing the death of over 228 people.
Fig. 10: Il traghetto MV Nyerere capovolto per il troppo peso (settembre 2018)
This tragic accident, which attracted the attention of many international media, was not even the most serious in the history of the Victoria. In 1996, there was a shipwreck in similar conditions but with an even more serious toll. In that case, the MV Bukoba sank, a ferry that had been in operation since 1979 and made several monthly trips on the lake. Even then, the accident was attributed to overloading: a vessel with a capacity of 430 passengers was systematically overloaded with several hundred extra people who weighed heavily on the hull. On May 21, 1996, with a dynamic very similar to what occurred in September 2018 with the Nyerere, the ferry capsized, causing the death of 894 people. It was a real massacre, one of the most serious in the history of naval disasters.
Fig. 11: Incidente del Bukoba
The problem of navigation safety in the lake is serious, so much so that the Lake Victoria Basin Commission had secured 35.8 million dollars for its improvement. The project included a centralized communication system and 22 stations for intervention in case of emergency. But for now nothing seems to have been done, given that, as mentioned, there are many daily accidents that often go unreported.
Conclusion
As analyzed in this report, Lake Victoria represents a very precious water resource for several million Africans. Unfortunately, nowadays this mass of water so massive and significant is not going through a flourishing moment. The main reasons for this complex situation are largely attributable to human action. In fact, contrary to what happens in other large basins, in which reductions in the water level or other negative events are generated by natural causes [11], the Victoria is in less than optimal conditions almost exclusively due to human activity. Pollution, diplomatic tensions and tragic accidents make the largest tropical lake in the world a very difficult place, at times even inhospitable. Its cross-border management, among other things, further complicates the overall picture, given that, as mentioned, there are three states that share its waters. The different political strategy of the national actors in question makes any measure to combat pollution slow and often late, as the case of the Water Hyacinth demonstrates. The danger of a plant that has in fact damaged the lake for decades has only recently been recognized by all three states bordering Victoria. This has inevitably compromised entire portions of the lake, which are now difficult to cross for low-powered vessels.
Diplomatic tensions for the control of the island of Migingo, in addition, are a serious concern for the political stability of the entire water basin, as well as for the central-southern region of sub-Saharan Africa. The reasons why Kenya and Uganda clash may seem futile and of little importance. Ultimately, it is about the control of little more than a rock and a few tin shacks. In reality, the political and diplomatic conflicts between the two nations are part of a much broader framework, which pertains to the dominant role that the two actors want to play at a local geopolitical level. The island of Migingo itself could therefore constitute a dangerous powder keg capable of causing an escalation that is difficult to control.
Even with regard to lake transport, as we have seen, the situation is very complicated. The absence of strict rules regarding the use of boats suitable for transporting goods and people, combined with the voracity of local shipowners to make easy money in exchange for few guarantees on safety, has caused very serious accidents that have cost the lives of hundreds of people. If we add to this the daily series of accidents that cause, as analyzed, 5,000 deaths every year, it is clear that lake transport is a sector in great difficulty.
In short, Lake Victoria has recently risen to the headlines for a series of events that have worsened the existence of many people instead of improving them. It is noted with regret, given that this large basin represents the largest water supply point in sub-Saharan Africa and could therefore serve to increase the standard of living of many families. In fact, apart from the Owen Falls hydroelectric plants and the high fishing of Nile perch, Victoria does not bring any tangible improvement. Indeed, as data, reports and investigations unfortunately testify, this lake is currently in critical conditions.
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[1] https://www.repubblica.it/solidarieta/emergenza/2020/02/25/news/lago_vittoria-249545748/.
[3] https://www.nigrizia.it/notizia/lago-vittoria-un-pozzo-di-veleni.
[4] https://www.nigrizia.it/notizia/lago-vittoria-un-pozzo-di-veleni.
[5] http://paper.netnoc.it/ispra/2018/05/22/il-giacinto-dacqua/.] La pesca, l’attività più importante per le popolazioni rivierasche e significativa anche nell’economia del paese, potrebbe essere drammaticamente colpita da questa difficile situazione ambientale.
[6]Bruna Sironi, Lago Vittoria, un pozzo di veleni, marcio nel profondo, tra liquami umani e industriali, in “Repubblica”, 25 febbraio 2020. L’articolo in cui si affronta in maniera dettagliata la vicenda è consultabile al seguente link: https://www.repubblica.it/solidarieta/emergenza/2020/02/25/news/lago_vittoria-249545748/.
[7] http://paper.netnoc.it/ispra/2018/05/22/il-giacinto-dacqua/.
[8] https://www.notiziegeopolitiche.net/migingo-lisolotto-sofraffollato-conteso-da-kenya-e-uganda/.
[9] https://www.notiziegeopolitiche.net/migingo-lisolotto-sofraffollato-conteso-da-kenya-e-uganda/.
[11] Per citare le più comuni cause “naturali” si segnala il riscaldamento globale, l’aumento di salinizzazione delle acque, o la vaporizzazione. In realtà, anche per queste si riscontra un forte ruolo umano, sicuramente più indiretto rispetto alla situazione del Lago Vittoria.
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